Physiological measures during cognitive processing have been extensively studied with pupillary dilation, in particular, having been explored as an index of learning, cognitive load, attention and memory (Sibley et al., 2011 Wang, 2011 Fridman et al., 2018). This suggests that deep learning sequence models may be good for separating components of pupil responses that are linked to luminance and accommodation from those that are linked to cognition and arousal. Consistent with our hypothesis that the model captures non-cognitive pupil dynamics, we found (1) the model's root-mean square error was less for lower performing subjects than for those having better performance on the post-viewing test, (2) the residuals of the RNN (LSTM) model had the highest correlation with subject post-viewing test scores and (3) the residuals had the highest discriminability (assessed via area under the ROC curve, AUC) for classifying high and low test performers, compared to the true pupil size or the RNN model predictions. Most importantly was how the model output related to subjects' cognitive performance as assessed by a post-viewing test. Compared to commonly-used models for this task, the RNN had the lowest errors rates in predicting subsequent pupil dilation given sequence data. We build and evaluate the model for a task where subjects are watching educational videos and subsequently asked questions based on the content. Specifically, we utilize sequence measures such as fixation position, duration, saccades, and blink-related information as inputs to a deep recurrent neural network (RNN) model for predicting subsequent pupil diameter. In this paper we consider how by modeling the response of the pupil in real-world environments we can capture the non-cognitive related changes and remove these to extract a residual signal which is a better index of cognition and performance. Problematic, however, is that pupil changes can be due to non-cognitive factors, for example luminance changes in the environment, accommodation and movement. There is increasing interest in how the pupil dynamics of the eye reflect underlying cognitive processes and brain states.
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